Sedih, Sakit, Kenapa ???

Kenapa dalam hati ini ada sakit yang menyiksa, kebahagiaan yang kujalani seakan tidak sempurna, begitu lain terasa di hati ini, ada yang begitu menjanggal seakan ada sesuatu yang harus aku luruskan, tapi apa?? aku gk tau apa itu, perasaanku selalu saja bimbang dan tak tak tau maunya apa.

Dalam kesendirian ku aku merasa sedih, dalam kesunyianku aku merasa gelisah, dan dalam hatiku ada yang lain,. biasanya aku tak seperti ini sendiri adalah sahabatku, sunyi adalah bagian dari hidupku, tapi kenapa sekarang semua itu berubah jadi hal yang aneh..

Aku yang biasanya senang jika sendiri, aku yang selalu merasa tenang jika berada di tempat sunyi sekarang harus merasa bahwa sendiri dan sunyi tu adalah beban berat yang harus ku pikul dan sakit perih jika terus aku ingat..

Oh..Tuhan, apakah yang harus aku lakukan, bukannya aku mengeluh akan hidupku aku percaya engkau takkan memberi hambamu masalah jika tak ada solusinya, maka dari itu bantu aku mencari solusinya ya Allah, karena mataku gelap bila tak kau berikan cahaya, tunjukkan aku jalan mana yang harus aku tempuh untuk menghadapi dan menangani kegalauan yang sangat menyiksa batinku...

The Summary of Unit 2 2.1 Varieties of Languages

2.1.1 Varieties of Language

The term VARIETY OF LANGUAGE can be used to refer to different manifestations of it, just the same way as one might take ‘music’ as a general phenomenon and then distinguish different ‘varieties of music’. What make one variety o language different from another are linguistic items that it includes, so we may define a variety of language as a set of linguistic items with similar social distribution.

Thus a variety can be much smaller than a ‘language’ or even than a ‘dialect’. The defining characteristic of each variety is the relevant relation to society-in other words, by whom and when the items concerned are used.

2.1.2 Speech Communities

The term speech community is widely used by sociolinguistic to refer to community based on language, but linguistic community is also used with the same meaning. If speech communities can be delimited, they than can be studied, and it may be possible to find interesting differences between communities which correlate with differences in their language.

2.2 Languages

2.2.1 Language and Dialect

A variety called a language contains more items than one called a dialect. This the sense in which we may refer to English as a language, containing the sum total of all the terms in all its dialects, with ‘Standard English’ as one dialect among many others (Yorkshire English, Indian English, etc).

The other contrast between ‘language’ and ‘dialect’ is question of prestige, a language having prestige which a dialect lacks.

The others example of Dialects:  

                                             Said: I want to take a bath      

                                            Bugis Makassar ( Erokka’ je’ne)

Bugis Languages                  Bugis Pinrang ( meloka’ dio)

                                            Bugis Enrekang ( Meloaaa’ mingio)

                                             Bugis Soppeng ( Maelo’ka cemme)

2.2.2 Standard Language

Standard languages are the result of a direct and deliberate intervention by society. This invention, called ‘standardization’ produce a standard language where before there were just ‘dialects’.

            The notion ‘standard language’ is somewhat imprecise, but a typical standard language will have passed through the following process (Haugen 1966; for a somewhat different list, see Garvin & Mathiot 1956).

1.      Selection. Somehow or other a particular variety must have been selected as the one to be developed into a standard language. It may be an existing variety, such as the one used in an important political or commercial center, but it could be an amalgam of various varieties.

2.      Codification. Some agency such as an academy must have written dictionaries and grammar books to fix the variety, so that everyone agrees on what is correct.

3.      Elaboration of foundation. it must be possible to use the selected variety in all the functions associated with central government and with writing, for example in parliament and law courts, in bureaucratic, various forms of literature.

4.      Acceptance. The variety has to be accepted by the relevant population as the variety of the community. Usually, in fact, as the national language. the standard language serves as a strong unifying force for the state as a symbol of its independence of other states (assuming that its standard is unique and not shared with others) and as a marker of its difference from other states.

2.2.3 The Delimitation of Languages

In principle this distinction is an absolute one: either a variety is a standard language, or it is not. (It is clear, however, that some languages are more standard than others, for instance, standard French has been more rigidly codified than Standard English).

For Example: in comparison with variety a chosen variety may be large, yet compared with another it may be small. The variety containing all items used in Britain Looks large compared with the variety consist of all the items used in any of the English Speaking countries.

            This is a widely criterion, but it cannot be taken seriously because there are such serious problems in its applications.

1.      Even popular usage.

2.      Mutual intelligibility is matter of degree, ranging from total intelligibility down to the total intelligibility.

3.      Varieties may be arranged.

4.      Mutual intelligibility is not really a relation between varieties, but between people since it are they, and not the varieties, that understand one another.

            In conclusion, mutual intelligibility does not work as a criterion delimiting languages ‘size’ sense. There is no other criterion which is worth considering as an alternative, so we must conclude (with Matthews 1979) that there is no real distinction to be drawn between ‘language’ and ‘dialect’. (except with reference to prestige, where it would be better to use the term ’standard language’ or just ‘standard’, rather than just ‘language’).  

2.2.4 The Family Tree Model

            A convenient way of representing the relationship among varieties is in terms of the family tree model, which was developed in the nineteenth century as an aid in the historical study of languages (for an excellent discussion, Bynon 1977:63). This model allows one show how closely number varieties spoken at present are related to another. That is how far each has diverged from others as a result of historical changes.

            For instance, one might take English, Germany, Welsh, French, and Hindi as in figure 2.1; one can show that English is most closely to Hindi. (For a fuller picture of the relations among these and many others ‘indo-European’ languages. Chinese has been added to show that is not related at all to other languages.

 

           

          English         German            Welsh            French                   Hindi    Chinese          

2.3 Dialects

When there are systematic differences in the way different groups speak a language, we say that each group speaks a dialect of that language. Dialects are mutually intelligible from of language that differs in systematic ways. Every speaker, whether rich or poor, regardless of religion or racial origin, speaks at least one dialect, just as each individual speaks an idiolect. A dialect is not an inferior or degraded form of language, and logically could not be so because a language is a collection of dialects.

2.3.1 Regional Dialect and Isoglosses  

Dialect diversity develops when people are separated geographically and socially. The changes that occur in the language spoken in one area or group do not necessarily spread to another. Within a single group of speakers who are in regular contact with one another, the changes spread and are acquired by children.  

2.3.2 Diffusion and the Wave Theory

            The wave theory explains why isoglosses intersect by postulating different geographical foci for spread of different items. The isogloss between two items like farm with and without the /r/ shows where the influence of one item stops and the other takes over; on the assumption between two items like farm with and without the /r/ shows where the influence of one item stops and the other takes over; on the assumption isogloss marks the furthest points which the influences of the new item is no reason why innovations leading to any two different isoglosses should have started in the same place or for that matter in the same period. So there is no particular reason why their isoglosses should not intersect.    

2.3.3 Social Dialects

There are two main sources of extra complexity. Firstly, geographical mobility. People move from one place to another, taking their dialects with them even they if modify them in the course of time to fit their new surroundings. The second source of complexity is the fact that geography is only one of the relevant factors, others being social class. Dialectologist, therefore, speak of Social, Dialects, or Sociolects to refer non-regional differences.

            All I have done in this section is to introduce the terms ‘social dialects’ and ‘accent’, pointing out that there are linguistic differences between speakers which are due not only to geography but also to others social factors. The problems with delimiting regional dialects can also no doubt be paralleled for social dialects, and indeed.

2.3.4 Types of Linguistic Item

In that pronunciation is less liable to standardization. Given the special connection between standardization and writing, and the fact that standardization needs not extent to pronunciation. It would not be surprising if this were so, though it may not be.

For Example: despite the manifest influence of the United States on Britain, its influence on Britain English is restricted almost entirely to vocabulary and appears to have had no at all on the pronunciation of even the most susceptible groups, such as teenagers (Radio, disc-jockey, and pop singers are complex and interesting exceptions).  

            The pronunciation and other items play different roles in the individual’s acts of identify to which we referred above. For instance, it could be that we use pronunciation in order to identify our origins (or to imply that we originated from some group, whether we really did or not – compare British people who acquire an RP accent late in life with the black middle class Detroit youths who for some reason acquired a lower class accent early in life). In contrast, we might use morphology, syntax, and vocabulary in order to identify our current status in society.

2.4 Registers

2.4.1 Registers and Dialects

            The term REGISTER is widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to ‘varieties accord to use’, in contrast with dialects, defined as ‘varieties according to user’. We can interpret register differences in terms of the model of acts of identify in much the same way as for dialect differences.

In conclusion, we have now developed a model language which is radically different from the one based on the nation ‘variety’. In the latter, any given text may reasonably be expected to represent just one variety. And for any given variety it is possible to write a grammar, a description covering all types of linguistics item found in text which represents that variety.

            We may call this the variety-based model, in contrast with the item based model which developed so far in this book. In the latter model, each linguistics items are associated with a social description which says who uses it, and when. The social descriptions of different items need not, and do not, all refer to the same factors, so within a single sentence some items. May reflect the speaker’s region of origin, others his social class, others to relation the addressee, others the formality of the occasion, and so on.

2.4.2 Convention and Necessity

The distinction between conventional and necessary social restriction is also interesting social restrictions is also interesting in view of the strength of feeling which the former arouse. There is a very powerful a convention which says that convention which says that certain words, such as shit, ought never to be used, and many people know these words but observe the convention to the extent that from birth to death they never say them (not even to report that their children have said them) a truly amazing fact, seen objectively.

2.4.3 Diglossia

It is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards ), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and in used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation.

For Example: in Arabic-speaking diglossic community, the language used at home is a local version of Arabic (There may be very differences between one dialect of Arabic and another, to the mutual incomprehensible) with little variation between the educated and the least educated speakers.

2.5 Mixture of Varieties

2.5.1 Code-switching

In this section, we shall use the term ‘variety’ to refer to the kind of thing which is traditionally referred to as a language, dialect, or register. However there are yet more reasons for not taking the notion seriously as a part of sociolinguistics theory, since so called varieties may be hopelessly mixed up together in the same stretch speech. The most obvious and widespread example of this is what is called-code-switching, in which a single speaker uses different varieties at different things.

2.5.2 Borrowing

In contrast with code-switching, this does not in fact involve any change of variety when such an item is used in English sentence.

It is common for items to be assimilated in some degree to the items already in the borrowing variety, with foreign sounds being replaced by native sounds and so on.

For instance: The word restaurant lost its uvular r when it was borrowed French into English, so that it would occur with a uvular r in an English sentence only as an example of code switching. On the other hand, assimilation need not be total, and in restaurant many English speaker still have a nasal vowel at the end, which would not have been there had the word not been borrowed from French.

2.5.3 Pidgins

The other language or languages contribute marginally to the lexicon and grammar. A language cobbled together in such a way is known as Pidgins. Although pidgins are in some sense rudimentary, they are not devoid of rules.

It may be helpful to bring together some characteristics of pidgins which distinguish them from other types of variety and variety-mixture.

1.      A pidgin based on variety x is not just an example of ‘bad’ x.

2.      A pidgin is not simply the result of heavy borrowing from one variety into another.

3.      A pidgin, unlike ordinary languages, has no native speakers, which is a consequence of the fact that it is used only for communication between members of different communities, where no ordinary variety is available as a link.

2.5.4 Creoles

The study of pidgins and creoles has contributed a great deal to our understanding of the nature of human language and the genetically determined constrains on grammars.

From a special point of view, creoles are of more interest than pidgins for three reasons:

            Firstly, there are more speakers of creoles than of pidgins, one estimates being between 10-17 million speakers of creoles compared with between 6-12 million regularly using pidgins.

            Secondly, most creoles languages are spoken by the descendents of African slaves and are f great interest, both two their speakers and to others. As one of the main sources information on their origins, and as a symbol of their identity.

            Thirdly, there are minority groups, such as West Indian immigrants in Britain, Whose members speak some Form of Creoles.  

References:

·         Labov, W. (2001). Principles of Linguistic Changes: Social Factors. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.

·         Hudson. Richard A (2011). Sociolinguistics: Varieties of Language, 21-79. Cambridge University Press.

·         Fromkin. Victoria, Rodman. Robert & Hymas, Nina (2007). An Introduction to Language: Language and Society, 409-436. University of California & North California State University.

Aku Konsultan Cinta ???

Sungguh aneh rasanya bisa membantu dan memberikan nasehat pada teman, senior ku tnetang masalah cinta mereka, cara mengatasi patah hati, ketergantungan terhadap pacar, dibuat galau oleh pria, di buat nangis oleh pria, dan masih banyak lagi masalah percintaan atau masalah pacaran yang bisa ku tangnai dengan kata-kataku. Pertamanya aku juga heran dengan diriku, kenapa kau begitu pasif berbicara tentang cinta padahal jatuh cinta saja aku nda tau bagaimana rasanya apalagi pacaran, bukan kah itu aneh kenapa gadis seperti ku yang tidak pernah pacaran bisa mengetahui segala bentuk masalah percintaan. Aku merasa ini adalah bakat dan karunia yang di berikan TUHAN padaku agar aku bisa merasakan apa yang orang lain rasakan tanpa harus mengalaminya dulu. Misalnya sakit hati, aku pernah meresakan dadaku sessak sangat sessak seperti ada yang mengrogoti jantungku entah kenapa sakit itu aku rasakan saat aku melihat sahabatku menangis karena di permainkan oleh pacarnya. Aku seolah bisa merasakan hal itu, Pertamanya aku berfikir bahwa ini hanyalah kebetulan namun sakit itu selalu ku rasakan jika mendengar cerita teman-temanku yang sakit hati atau pun melihat mereka menangis gara-gara cinta aku mulai menyadari kalau aku memliki bakat seperti ini, memang aneh menjalaninya tapi hal itu baik untukku aku bisa membantu teman-temanku mengatasi masalah-masalahnya.
 DAn bukannya aku tidak pernah jatuh cinta atau apakah, namun aku tidak mengerti dengan persaan itu, rasa yang sangat sulit aku jangkau dengan akal ku, namun bisa ku ungkapkan lewat puisi dan kata-kata. Puisi-puisi ku selalu disukai banyak orang tak heran guru SMA ku memberiku dua jempol dan mengaku kehebatanku dalam mengarang puisi dan cerpen, aku seperti larut dalam suatu peristiwa yang aku liat sendiri, walaupun tidak mengalaminya secara langsung namun aku bisa merasakannya juga.
Hehehe....Tak heran kalau orang tuaku kaget saat mendengar cerita ku, aku bangga dengan bakat ku ini, namun pernah dalam benakku menginginkan untuk betul-betul merasakan apa yang aku liat, bukan hanya melihatnya saja namun aku ingin mengalaminya juga.
*Lebih baik pernah sakit hati dari pada tidak karena yang seseorang pernah merasakannya akan levih hati-hati lagi dalam mencari cinta. *

Speaking 4

“The Juvenile Delinquency From Young Generations And Old Generations”

As a generally, we always find young generation do something bad for their self like absent from their class, race, drink alcohol, clubbing, smoking, and the others. Actually, young generation’s usually young generations who do mischief has some reason. Such as, they haven’t got attention from their parents because their parents busy with their job, then as we know that young generations always want to find their real self so, they can do anything before thing the consequences or young generations who their mind still labile or not consistent so that’s why young generations always panic with their life especially with their future.

Only some of young generations do mischief because not all young generations or children haven’t get attention from their parents. There are some of them doing it because they have high curiosity with something new for their life. The effects from what they do will they feel when they became to adult or they want make the mischief as their experience that will they told to their children.

But, not just young people who do mischief, but the older generation had come to do it without realizing they have to do things that will harm them and the younger generation as well as where we know that the parents always set an example to the young, then automatically the younger generation bound to follow what the older generation did because they assume that the older generation is an example and a benchmark in life, good or bad depending on who is giving and receiving examples of such actions. Cause of the older generation do mischief is not because they do not get attention from their families or want to find their identity as which often occurs in young people.

There are several kinds of mischief made ​​by older generations as the government's corruption, drunkenness in the entertainment, playing a woman, and others. Has been attracting a lot of questions, why the older generation has no moral appeal in the younger generation, the answer is perhaps, because their eyes are dazzled by money and novelty.
Day By day the older and younger generations as if racing to do mischief without thinking of consequences that they will get later on.